Functional re-education is a therapeutic approach for restoring or improving an individual's ability to perform everyday activities, such as eating, dressing, and walking. This treatment uses targeted training to improve physical endurance and boost energy levels, enabling patients to participate in daily and social activities actively. Functional re-education also works as a preventative measure. By training physical stability, balance, and motor control, this therapy can reduce the risk of falls, particularly among older individuals and those recovering from muscle or joint injuries.

Motor re-education focuses on improving a person's motor function and optimising their motor skills. This treatment is recommended for individuals with musculoskeletal injuries, neurological disabilities, movement disorders, and chronic conditions. Motor re-education focuses on enhancing the coordination and control of body movements, allowing patients to perform everyday activities more easily. This treatment is also effective for pain management; motor re-education techniques, including targeted exercises, can alleviate musculoskeletal pain and chronic pain, contributing to an overall sense of well-being.

Tecar Therapy, also known as Tecar, utilises an electromedical device that generates heat within the anatomical area requiring therapy. It is effective for treating a wide range of injuries and inflammatory conditions of the musculoskeletal system. Tecar Therapy reduces various types of pain, including joint, muscle, and tendon pain. Indeed, high-frequency electromagnetic waves target nerve endings to diminish pain perception and promote muscle relaxation. These waves also reduce inflammation in soft tissues, such as muscles, tendons, and ligaments, improving joint mobility and alleviating inflammation-related pain. Tecar Therapy treatment also stimulates cell metabolism and increases blood flow to the treated area, regenerating tissue damaged by injury and speeding up the recovery process during the post-injury and post-surgery phases.

Laser therapy is a physical therapy employing laser light to treat various musculoskeletal conditions and injuries. In physiotherapeutic applications, the laser alleviates inflammation in treated tissues by stimulating blood and lymphatic flow, improving drainage of inflammatory fluids, and reducing swelling and redness related to inflammation. Laser therapy also mitigates musculoskeletal pain by stimulating the production of endorphins—the so-called 'feel-good neurotransmitters'—and modulating pain transmission through nerve fibres. This treatment also accelerates the healing process of damaged tissue by increasing the production of fibroblasts—the cells responsible for collagen synthesis—optimising local vascularisation, and stimulating cell regeneration.

Spinal mobilisations are a form of physical therapy designed to restore or improve spinal joint mobility. This therapy involves gentle, controlled manual movements applied to individual vertebrae to alleviate pain and improve joint mobility and flexibility. These manual movements help minimise pain by reducing pressure on spinal nerves and relieving the pain of conditions such as herniated discs, nerve compression, muscle contractures, and joint tension. Vertical mobilisations also enhance joint mobility and flexibility, reducing joint stiffness and improving the range of motion necessary for daily activities.

Pelvic rehabilitation is a targeted treatment to improve the function of the pelvic floor muscles and related structures. This type of rehabilitation addresses chronic localised pelvic and lower back pain arising from conditions such as muscle tension, trigger points, nerve dysfunction, and inflammation. Through specific physical exercises, relaxation techniques, and manual therapy, pelvic rehabilitation effectively reduces localised pain and enhances patient quality of life. Focused on re-educating the ligaments and muscles of the pelvic floor, pelvic rehabilitation is used to treat incontinence, prolapses, dyspareunia, and sexual dysfunction. It is highly recommended during the pre- and post-natal phases and following prostate, bladder, urethra, and uterus surgeries, serving both preventive and curative purposes.

Global postural gymnastics comprises a series of physical exercises designed to improve body posture. The aim is to focus on muscular balance to ensure proper body positioning in space and alignment and to prevent or alleviate musculoskeletal issues. Global postural gymnastics helps people better understand their postural habits and introduces corrective measures to maintain correct posture over time. Achieving correct posture involves developing greater body awareness through specific exercises that strengthen weak muscles, lengthen shortened muscles, and improve alignment. Thus, the risk of musculoskeletal issues caused by poor posture is minimised. Correct posture and muscular balance ensure an even distribution of load across the body during physical activity, reducing undue stress on specific muscle and joint areas.

Myofascial manipulations are a type of manual therapy that treats the fascia, a connective structure that surrounds the body's muscles, nerves and organs. Myofascial manipulations treat trigger points and tension in the fascia to relieve muscle and joint pain through pressure, stretching and mobilisation techniques. This treatment also improves joint flexibility and mobility as well as posture. Regarding the first point, myofascial manipulations alleviate fascial tension, assist tissue movement, and decrease the likelihood of muscle and joint stiffness. Regarding postural enhancement, myofascial manipulations relax tense muscles and realign the body, preventing musculoskeletal issues arising from consistently poor posture.

Massage therapy employs various techniques to relieve muscle pain caused by tension, contractures, inflammation, and injury. It relaxes tense muscles, reduces pressure on trigger points, and improves circulation in the affected area. Massage therapy also aids in recovery post-injury or surgery by boosting circulation, reducing inflammation, and encouraging tissue regeneration. This treatment also includes massages that stimulate endorphin release, thereby reducing stress and anxiety and fostering a sense of calm and relaxation.

Paraffin wax is a heat treatment that involves immersing specific body parts into a warm blend of paraffin wax and essential oils. The warmth from the paraffin has a soothing effect on the muscles and nervous system, easing stress and muscle tension. It thus fosters overall relaxation. Paraffin effectively alleviates pain from conditions such as arthritis, carpal tunnel syndrome, and arthrosis. Its heat enhances blood flow to the affected area, thereby reducing inflammation. With paraffin treatments, users experience relief from muscle stiffness. Immersing joints in warm paraffin relaxes soft tissues, enhances joint flexibility, and alleviates muscle stiffness and tension discomfort.

Magnet therapy is a form of physical therapy that stimulates tissue regeneration and rebalances cellular biochemistry using electromagnetic waves. Used for therapeutic and curative purposes, magnet therapy treats post-traumatic and chronic issues using magnetic fields that influence the nervous system. This alleviates muscle and joint pain and reduces pain perception associated with arthritis and sports injuries. During magnet therapy, which is entirely painless, patients are exposed to a magnetic field generated by special high or low-frequency magnets. These magnets are applied to the affected body area using special bands. Magnetic therapy aids in releasing anti-inflammatory substances, reducing inflammation in the treated tissues. It also accelerates the healing of damaged tissue by increasing the production of healthy cells and promoting tissue regeneration.

Therapeutic ultrasound is a treatment that uses high-frequency sound waves to alleviate muscle and joint pain linked with muscle tension, sports injuries, arthritis, tendonitis, and carpal tunnel syndrome. The sound waves penetrate deep into the tissues, stimulating the release of endorphins that help reduce the perception of pain. Its analgesic, anti-inflammatory, muscle decontracting, and haematoma resorbing effects make ultrasound therapy ideal for treating muscular and joint disorders. Ultrasound reduces inflammation in the treated area by generating heat and increasing blood flow; this helps decrease swelling, redness, and irritation of inflamed tissues. Additionally, ultrasound targets trigger points—localised areas of muscle tension that can cause pain and restrict mobility. In these cases, ultrasound relaxes contracted muscles and eases tension.

TENS—transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation—uses low-level electrical currents to relieve muscular, neuropathic pain, and discomfort associated with conditions like arthritis, carpal tunnel syndrome, and sports injuries. This electrical stimulation helps block the transmission of pain signals to the brain, effectively reducing the sensation of discomfort. TENS can also be used to enhance muscle function and monitor patients who have suffered muscle injuries, strokes, and other neurological conditions. The electrical impulses help reduce muscle spasticity and promote functional recovery. This treatment is designed for long-term use, to manage chronic pain without the typical side effects of painkillers.

Electrostimulators use electrical impulses to stimulate muscles or nerves. They increase muscle strength, aid muscle recovery, and improve muscle tone. Electrostimulators specifically facilitate controlled, repetitive muscle contractions, which can enhance muscle strength in individuals whose physical constraints prevent them from doing endurance exercises. Electrostimulation also accelerates muscle recovery post-injury by promoting blood circulation and increasing muscle nutrient flow. This not only reduces the sensation of muscle fatigue but also optimises the tissue repair process. Electrostimulators are an excellent option for people aiming to tone specific body areas, such as the abdominals, buttocks, and thighs. They are an essential tool for muscle definition.

Iontophoresis uses low-intensity electric currents to deliver medications and other substances directly to the affected body part, which is particularly useful for muscular-articular pain and inflammation. Specifically, iontophoresis delivers pain-relieving drugs directly to the area requiring treatment, providing faster pain relief than oral or topical administration of the drugs. Iontophoresis can also be used to administer anti-inflammatory agents directly to inflamed tissues, effectively reducing swelling and irritation from conditions like arthritis and musculoskeletal injuries. This treatment is highly customised, tailored to specific variables such as the duration and intensity of the treatment and the type of pain-relieving medication used, depending on the individual's medical condition.

Diadynamic therapy is an electrophysical treatment that utilises low-intensity electric currents to block the sensation of pain in the brain related to specific muscle, joint, and neuropathic conditions. This treatment also alleviates muscle spasticity in patients with spinal cord injuries or those recovering from strokes; reducing muscle spasticity is synonymous with improved motor control and enhanced body function for everyday activities. Diadynamic therapy also accelerates the rehabilitation process. Indeed, as part of a musculoskeletal rehabilitation programme, it hastens recovery during the post-injury and post-surgery phases for muscles and joints.

CBM (Computerised Bone Mineralometry) is a diagnostic test that assesses bone health by measuring bone mineral density. It identifies decreases in bone density, indicating if a patient is at risk of osteoporosis. It is particularly recommended for individuals at increased risk of bone demineralisation, such as women going through menopause, those who have had early menopause or post-surgery, individuals with specific diseases, or those who have used certain medications. Early detection through DXA allows for timely intervention to mitigate the adverse effects of the disease. Recommended measures include adequate calcium intake, exposure to sunlight as a natural source of vitamin D, monitoring vitamin D levels, and supplementing with vitamin D in case of deficiency.

A physiatric examination is a useful tool in preventing osteoarthritis. The physiatrist – or rehabilitation physician – examines the patient’s medical history to get a full picture of any past trauma, previous joint problems, lifestyle and any physical activity performed. The specialist will then examine the patient’s joints to assess their mobility, muscle strength, stability and any signs of inflammation or injury. This examination also covers posture and movement to identify any dysfunction or muscular imbalance that could lead to joint injury. Upon completion of the physiatric examination, the specialist will design an exercise programme to improve joint mobility, posture and muscle strength. This programme will include a counselling session during which the physiatrist will provide advice on nutrition, appropriate exercise and stress management techniques to prevent joint injury.

The orthopaedic examination is essential for managing musculoskeletal conditions and injuries associated with bones and joints. During this examination, the orthopaedist conducts a thorough assessment of the patient’s clinical history, which informs the subsequent treatment plan. In this plan, the orthopaedist will prescribe physical therapies, medications, injections, and therapeutic exercises. The primary goal of an orthopaedic examination is to improve the patient's musculoskeletal function. This involves optimising joint mobility, alleviating pain, restoring muscle strength, and encouraging an active lifestyle.

Physiotherapy consultations address orthopaedic, traumatological, rheumatological, neurological, angiological, and post-surgical issues. During the consultation, impaired motor, sensory, or cognitive functions are evaluated to tailor a rehabilitation programme to restore autonomy. The programme may include a variety of treatments, therapies, medications, and exercises designed to reactivate and recover lost or impaired functions. The interventions conducted during the examination vary depending on the organ affected by the functional deficit, as well as the techniques and tools employed by the physiotherapist. Following diagnostic examinations, specialist recommendations, and patient interviews, the physiotherapist comprehensively analyses the clinical condition before focusing on and treating the specific affected area.

Hip replacement surgery involves replacing the hip joint with an artificial implant called a prosthesis. This procedure is often used to treat severe hip osteoarthritis but may also be recommended for other conditions, such as hip fractures or avascular necrosis of the femoral head. This surgery eases joint pain and stiffness, which can limit mobility and quality of life. After this surgical treatment, many patients also experience a significant improvement in hip mobility and the ability to perform daily physical activities (walking, climbing stairs, and taking part in light sports). In some cases of severe hip osteoarthritis, bone deformities can impact joint stability and function. Hip replacement surgery corrects these deformities, restoring normal hip anatomy and improving overall joint function. This also helps prevent muscle deterioration and promotes muscle strength and function recovery.

Knee replacement surgery is an operation involving the replacement of the damaged knee joint surface with a prosthesis. This procedure is used to treat severe knee osteoarthritis but may also be recommended for severe joint injuries and bone deformities. Knee replacement surgery helps patients resume normal daily activities by reducing joint pain and stiffness, which can significantly limit mobility and overall quality of life. After surgery, many patients see improved knee mobility and the ability to perform everyday physical activities, such as walking, climbing stairs, and bending. Knee pain and limited mobility can affect posture and balance. After knee replacement surgery, patients notice improved posture and balance, minimising the risk of falls and related injuries.

Shoulder replacement surgery involves the replacement of the damaged shoulder joint surface with a prosthesis. This surgical procedure is recommended for treating severe joint injuries, severe osteoarthritis, or other conditions causing shoulder pain and functional limitation. Chronic shoulder pain can be debilitating and significantly limit mobility and quality of life. Shoulder replacement surgery reduces pain, allowing patients to resume normal daily activities. Shoulder replacement surgery helps improve posture and balance, often compromised by shoulder pain and limited mobility.

Hand surgery includes many procedures, from correcting congenital anomalies to repairing traumatic injuries or degenerative conditions. Hand surgery helps reduce pain associated with specific conditions, such as arthritis, tendon injuries, fractures, and nerve compressions. This surgery optimises hand function, restoring the ability to move and muscle strength. It is particularly recommended for individuals who have suffered severe injuries or conditions impairing their ability to use the hand effectively. Hand surgery is also recommended for individuals with congenital anomalies or acquired deformities. It corrects bone, tendon, and joint positioning, thereby improving hand aesthetics and function. For patients who have lost precise hand control because of injuries or neurological conditions, such surgical treatment improves coordination and precision of movement, allowing them to perform daily activities easily.

Foot surgery can be performed for various conditions, including congenital deformities, traumatic injuries, joint disorders, and chronic pain. Foot surgery reduces the risk of pain associated with conditions such as hallux valgus, plantar nerve neuralgia, flat feet, or other deformities and injuries. This surgery also improves foot function by restoring the patient’s ability to walk, run, and perform other motor activities. It is particularly recommended for anyone who has suffered severe injuries or conditions impairing their ability to use the foot effectively. For some patients, foot surgery increases mobility and flexibility, allowing them to move and take part more actively in daily life.

Hand surgery is essential in treating rheumatic diseases, especially when they severely impair limb function. Rheumatic diseases—such as rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, and other forms of inflammatory arthropathy—can cause significant damage to the joints, soft tissues, and bone structures of the hand, leading to pain, deformity, and functional limitations. Hand surgery relieves joint pain and improves the function of the joints and soft tissues of the hand through targeted surgical interventions that correct deformities and repair injuries. Early intervention with this type of surgery prevents or limits the deterioration of the joints and hand structures, helping to maintain hand function and prevent the worsening of deformities.

Surgical treatment of a rheumatic foot is necessary when other conservative treatments have failed to relieve pain and restore normal foot function. This procedure is suitable for correcting deformities, reducing pressure and stress on the joints and soft tissues, improving foot function, and allowing more natural movement. In some cases, this type of surgery helps prevent or slow further joint damage, maintaining foot mobility and function in the long term. In terms of deformities, this surgery corrects: hallux valgus (bunions), flat feet, and fallen arches, improving joint alignment and minimising the risk of subsequent complications.

Synovectomy is a surgical procedure to remove the inflamed or damaged synovial membrane from the joints of the knee, hand, foot, shoulder, wrist, elbow, and ankle. This clinical procedure is commonly performed on patients with conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis or other forms of inflammatory arthritis, in which the synovial membrane becomes inflamed and thickened and produces excess synovial fluid, causing pain, swelling, and joint damage. By removing the inflamed synovial membrane, synovectomy reduces inflammation and joint pain associated with arthritic conditions. It also improves joint mobility and reduces stiffness, allowing patients to make more fluid and natural movements. Synovectomy removes the source of chronic inflammation, helping to slow the progression of joint disease and minimising the risk of irreversible damage over time. After this surgery, patients may respond better to conservative treatments, such as physical and drug therapy, as a significant source of inflammation and pain has been removed.

Orthopaedic rehabilitation is a branch of physical medicine that focuses on managing and treating musculoskeletal conditions related to bone fractures, ligament injuries, osteoarthritis, and post-surgery recovery. It restores muscle strength, endurance, and coordination after trauma or surgery. Specific rehabilitation techniques reduce pain and restore mobility, improving the patient’s quality of life. This medical procedure includes stretching and joint mobility exercises that help restore the full range of motion in the affected joints. Also, through specific therapeutic techniques (targeted exercises, manual therapies, physical therapies, ultrasound, electrotherapy), orthopaedic rehabilitation helps ease pain in areas affected by trauma or injury. This form of rehabilitation also prevents the formation of scar tissue adhesions and muscle contractures resulting from prolonged immobility.

Robotic orthopaedic surgery, allowing the surgeon to operate with the support of a remotely controlled robot, is a viable alternative to traditional surgical techniques in orthopaedics. The procedure’s benefits include greater precision, flexibility, and control. The surgeon sends commands remotely to a robot capable of executing them with absolute precision, though not entirely autonomously. The advantages are evident, for example, in hip or knee arthroplasty, as the use of robotics in these types of operations allows for better implant placement, promotes greater bone preservation and a lower risk of bleeding, preserving the ligamentous structures of the limb, leading to increased implant longevity and improved joint function. It allows for reduced postoperative pain, faster recovery, and a lower risk of complications.

Ultrasound bone densitometry (DEXA) is a noninvasive technique for measuring bone mineral density (BMD). It helps monitor bone health over time. Through a technology called REMS (Radiofrequency Echographic Multi Spectrometry), unlike traditional X-ray bone densitometry (DXA), DEXA uses high-frequency sound waves to assess bone quality, particularly in peripheral areas such as the heel (calcaneus). Thus, it does not emit radiation, making the examination safe enough to be performed even on individuals advised against radiation exposure. DEXA allows for early diagnosis of osteoporosis, enabling preventive and therapeutic measures to minimise the risk of fractures. It is a valid and safe solution for all patients, including those who cannot be exposed to X-rays, as it does not involve exposure to ionising radiation.

Bone and joint CT is an innovative imaging technique that can assess the body’s bone and joint structures, providing detailed and three-dimensional images of bones, joints, and surrounding soft tissues. This allows an accurate diagnosis of fractures, dislocations, cartilage injuries, osteoarthritis, arthritis, and other musculoskeletal conditions. This technique is particularly useful in detecting hidden injuries or those not visible with other imaging methods, allowing for the condition’s early diagnosis and timely treatment. Detailed images from bone and joint CT allow surgeons to plan complex operations with greater precision and ease, such as joint fracture repair or joint replacement, reducing the risk of intraoperative complications. Bone and joint CT can be integrated with other diagnostic methods, such as conventional radiography, ultrasound, and magnetic resonance imaging, to assess other musculoskeletal conditions holistically.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is an advanced imaging technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce detailed images of organs, tissues, and body structures. It provides the patient with an accurate diagnosis of pathological conditions such as tumours, injuries, inflammations, and congenital anomalies. Due to its high sensitivity to soft tissues, MRI is particularly effective in assessing neurological, musculoskeletal, vascular, and central nervous system conditions. Unlike computed tomography (CT), MRI does not use ionising radiation, reducing the risk of exposure to X-rays and making it a safer choice for patients requiring repeated imaging exams. MRI covers various anatomical areas and can assess various regions, including the brain, spinal cord, heart, blood vessels, liver, kidneys, muscles, and joints. MRI can diagnose complex and multifactorial pathologies involving multiple organ systems thanks to its ability to produce detailed images of soft tissues and anatomical features.